Good and Bad Teachers Essay

I would like to say that I did have some bad teachers and some good ones. I would like to start with the good teachers I had in the past and the ones I have now. I had about 5 good teachers in the past that were very good to me and my class. Those teachers were good because they would give us parties every time the whole class gets an A. They would give us free time when we needed it, they would let us play bingo beside on the lesson we were having). I gave about 6 good teachers this year, well so far they are good to me and the class. Of course you are one of them although I only get to talk to you on Thursdays and Mondays, but because you let me do something’s over I would say that you are a good teacher, well online teacher, but let’s get back to school teachers the other 5 are good because they know when to give us tests and quizzes, but there is one in particular that is already planning a part for when we finish the part of a book were taking. The others are also good because the give us what we need and want. Now I will talk about the bad teachers. In the past I had 4 bad teachers, I am not that type of person that likes to point figures but here it goes, I think that they are bad because they give us too much work for our little hands to take care of and all day is work and work. They did not like it when we said something wrong they would put us outside of the class and if that did not work then they would literally tape on our mouth, but lucky me I never talked during that teacher’s period so that never happened put to me. This year I have 3 bad teachers, I think that they are bad because every time the WHOLE class fails that teacher blames it on the students and some of us tell that teacher that it is not our fault, if the whole class failed that means that, that teacher did not teach us very good or the test was not based on what teacher had thought us. I know that is not a nice thing to do to us as students. The other teachers they either just over do it with classwork and homework. I know what you are thing Ms. Harvard we need that work, and I could not agree more with you but these teachers just give us the unneeded things.

Lifes as a House Outline Essay

Erikson’s Psychosocial theory – How has the person matured? Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Where is he/she on the hierarchy? Albert Ellis’ REBT – What irrational beliefs does the character display? Stress Management – What techniques are used to manage stress? Freud’s Defense Mechanisms – Identify any defense mechanisms being applied to the character’s life. Communication strategies – Does the character use I messages, understanding, probing, etc. Family systems – rules of healthy and unhealthy families – how are they applied here? Addiction – Do you see any addictive qualities? Love and Relationships – How is love expressed? What would you say about the character’s relationships with others? What strategies did the character use? What does the movie illustrate about the importance of family across the generations? What does the move illustrate about healthy and unhealthy family systems? How can this film illustrate the phenomenological/humanistic principle that life has more meaning because it must end? discuss certain themes, concepts and issues and relate them to our studies in psychology. Pick a character in the movie and tell how this particular person learned (for better or worse) new behaviors and/or cognition. Use their experiences, both past and present and their relationships (family, personal, friends) with other people, to convey what made them learn and/or change. Discussion should include topics such as: Developmental stages of life, Conditioning, Motivation, Emotions, Personality, Psychological Disorders He was Goth and suicidal†¦ he was reckless with drugs and sex. He tried to hang himself in the closet. He was disrespectful to his family. But it’s hard to pinpoint what exact disorder he had. I would simply say depression. Possibly bipolar because there were times when he was okay in the movie and then he would go into a rage of reckless behavior. Psychological focus areas: mid-age and adolescent re-invention in response to grief / loss; parenting adolescents; facing death and working out what kind of a legacy to leave Sam goes through new changes in behavior. When the movie begun Sam was a rebellious young teen with negative feelings toward his father. Throughout the plot of the movie Sam goes through experiences with his father as they spend time together over the summer, which brings them closer together and allows them to have a better relationship. Sam’s acting out and unwanted actions were results of his parents divorce and not having a healthy relationship with his father. In Psychology, the basic concept of Nature vs. Nurture is said to Influence Development. Nature, according to Laura A. King (2010), includes â€Å"the individual’s biological inheritance, especially his or her genes† (p. 64). Nurture involves a persons environment and experiences. In her book King (2010) also states â€Å"early experiences are important contributors to development† (p. 266). In the movie you could easily understand the nurture side of Sam’s behavior. Knowing and hearing about what kind of people Sam hangs out with we can kind of understand why he dresses a certain way and why he partakes in certain activities, such as drugs. The people he hangs out with leads us back again to the divorce. Sam chooses to hang out with others like him who fell pain inside. His behaviors are a cry for help. In the movie Sam says â€Å"I like how it feels not to feel†. He does drugs to forget his problems and not feel pain. The emotions that young kids and teens go through when parents get a divorce usually include depression, anger, sadness, and the feeling that maybe they could have done something to have made the situation better. While some children and teens choose to hide their feelings, Sam didn’t. He acted out with disrespect and constant anger.

Ethics and Social Responsibility Essay

As a business grows and expands, eventually the goal of a business is to transform from company into a corporate powerhouse. Once the goal of a company turned corporate is met a corporation is to operate eventually internationally within other countries. With the ability to operate a business internationally this will enable a corporation access to several features. These features are more revenue income, acquire and disperse domestic and international stocks, capital expenditures in the forms of resources and manpower in foreign countries. These features also spell the recipe for creating more jobs within those foreign countries a corporation plans to operate within. Culture Issues Affecting Corporations Actions Outside the United States The well known jean clothing company known in the retail business as Levi’s operates under the business name of Levi Strauss and Company. Levi Strauss and Company is located in the heart of Northern California’s Bay Area city of San Francisco. Levi Strauss and Company operates and own its factories of clothing internationally in 110 countries (Levi Strauss & Company, 2012). With the business growth and years in operation Levi Strauss and Company also have been put under extreme scrutiny because of business practices and business ethics. Most of the examinations and criticizing of the company business practices have been from various groups and individuals ranging from employee unions, stock market companies and individual, even from external companies associated with Levi and Strauss. One of the reasons for criticism was the attention brought onto Levi and Strauss operating two of the corporation’s factories in Bangladesh, India. What the assessment of Levi and Strauss Company found was that its resources also included the employment of children working within the factories. Many of these children working within the two factories working under the minimum age limit. This had put Levi and Strauss into a bad business situation. With the United States the minimum age limit to work legally in non-hazardous areas is 14 years of age (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010). In India the children working at two of Levi Strauss and Company were under the age of 14 years of age. With many of these children working there most of the wages were used to help support their families who depended on their child’s wages. Levi’s implemented into its Terms of Engagement that any child working under the minimum age limit would have his or her salaries covered while paying for his or her full education (Levi Strauss & Company, 2012). Ethical Perspectives Of Levi and Strauss Company Global Organization Levi Strauss and Company have ethical perspectives are in agreement with the majority view of operating as an ethical global business entity. Levi Strauss and Company operates under a Worldwide Code of Business Conduct, and a Global Anti-Bribery and Anti-Corruption Policy (Levi Strauss & Company, 2010). Under the Worldwide Code of Conduct Levi’s operates its business affairs with good responsibility and integrity. The Code of Conduct also encourages the corporation’s employees base business decisions under the corporation’s ethical values. Operating under anti-bribery and anti-corruption policy, Levi’s operates under each country’s specific laws and regulations, in addition, these policies are put into effect to help the company’s employees be able to identify any potential business scenarios and avoid situations, which can put the company’s ethical policies at risk (Levi Strauss & Company, 2010). While operating in 2008 Levi Strauss had received pertinent information regarding its factories in the country of Uzbekistan. Levi Strauss and Company had gone under pressure to investigate about the working conditions of forced child labor to harvest cotton in Uzbekistan. With inquiries from the company’s external stakeholders, environmental nongovernmental organizations, socially based firms, and internationally based retailers, the company addressed the issue of forced child labor to harvest the cotton in that country. What Levi’s did was ban the cotton harvested in Uzbekistan (Levi Strauss and Company, 2010). From the part of 2008 through the middle of 2009 the company brought the issue to the United States Government and engaged the country of Uzbekistan government to resolve the situation of the country forcing children to harvest the cotton within that country (Levi Strauss and Company, 2010). Levi’s Ethical Perspectives Across Cultures Levi Strauss and Company faces different challenges operating in different countries and abiding by various cultural ethical differences. While operating in different Asian countries Levi and Strauss took part in The Asia Foundation to help support the end of corruption that is common in many Asian countries (SUPPORTING VULNERABLE POPULATIONS IN ASIA, 2012). the Asia Foundation helps with funding from Levi Strauss and Company develop programs which are to enable a better life for many people in Asian countries. With helping to end corruption Levi and Strauss has taken a pro-active approach to end this dilemma that is still in many of the Asian countries. In working internationally Levi and Strauss has addressed the issue of women’s rights in countries such as Egypt. In other countries the humane rights of women are equivalent to almost nothing putting women down at the bottom of the social pyramid. Levi and Strauss has partnered with Business for Social Responsibility to run a program also known as the HERProject-for Health Enable Returns that is meant to help women in educating women about health reproduction and access to get health services (Jill Nash , Vice President, Levi Strauss & Co. Corporate Affairs, 2010). With regards to operating in international countries Levi and Strauss must be able to handle each challenge differently and adapt policies for each specific region. One solution may work in one country but may not work effectively in an another country. Levi and Strauss operate under a high standard of ethics and code of conduct within the United States, which is far higher when compared to other foreign countries. Operating business in a high ethical standard is something Levi and Strauss have been innovating as the corporation ventures to operate in foreign countries. With each country come challenges, which may be similar and different from other countries, which are unique to each region. In conclusion businesses are either currently or entering into the global market as the realization of more income revenue is abundant. When companies look to grow with expansion into other countries sometimes the earnings of revenue will tend to take a company’s focus of concentration away from dealing with cultural aspects and challenges unique to those specific country regions. When the distraction on not learning about the different cultures and ethnicity conducts business do companies create mistakes that can have a major ethical issue in the public view. The best result would be to conduct business research on how business conduct operates in each country to avoid any potential ethical dilemmas.

Media Freedom in Pakistan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Media Freedom in Pakistan - Term Paper Example The focus of the study is given to how the media helped to restore the judiciary besides other benefits of the media freedom. The downside of this freedom and its limitations are also discussed in order to give a balanced picture of the impact and relate how free the media really is at this stage. Finally, an examination is made of how the media can help to make democratisation succeed. Officially, democracy began in Pakistan with the 1973 constitution after General Yahya Khan allowed the conduction of a free and fair election in Pakistan for the first time in 1970. It was a parliamentary democracy that allowed for democratically elected representatives to rule. Prior to that, his predecessor General Ayub Khan did allow the country to experience a ‘basic democracy’ under the 1962 constitution after usurping power, but it was rightly called a ‘constitutional autocracy’. Democratic institutions were still suppressed and a mass movement arose to guarantee the p rinciple of one-man-one-vote would be applied. However, the quality of the democracy in Pakistan during the last quarter of the 20th century has been questionable, and arguably it still is. It was again largely absent during Zia-ul-Haqq’s military rule from 1977 to 1988. Political parties were then allowed to participate in proper elections this time in 1988 but the transition to democracy has been a continuous struggle between the military and civilian organisations. In short, where some democratic practices have been permitted, they have usually been partial, controlled and incomplete under the rule of the military or else manipulated under the occasional civilian rule. The pattern that emerges from this brief historical overview is that the degree of democracy has been generally (though not steadily) increasing in Pakistan over the past few decades.

Summary and Critical Analysis Project Compensation and Agreements Essay

Summary and Critical Analysis Project Compensation and Agreements - Essay Example fee method of billing does not put so much into the experience of the employee which is a downside into motivating employees to have experience to work. It simply focuses on the kind of service provided before pay is issued. A fixed fee account provides a fixed fee for the services being offered and which requires an in depth knowledge of the service being provided. This is only effective for experienced designers who are aware of their services (Piotrowski 100). In a cost plus percentage markup method, the customer is the one who benefits more as they are passed all the discounts from the suppliers leading to low cost of purchase. This however works only on the residential clients whose purchases are relatively smaller. Square foot method is payment by the number of square foots meaning the more the square foots the more the pay. It is effective in commercial industries as it boosts productivity and motivates employees to work even harder. The best method from all the methods above and others is the combination method that combines several of the methods taking into account experience and market among other factors (Piotrowski 105). Any service provided in the field of design demands a contract with a list of specifications necessary to provide guidance. The contract requires several basic requirements which have to be followed if it is to be considered valid. These elements include an offer, counteroffer and acceptance where the terms of the design are discussed and the price is provided. It is concluded by mutual agreement and a letter to seal the deal and provide physical evidence of the deal (Piotrowski 112). The contract is a perfect way to not only protect the interests of the client but they protect the work of the designer as well from frauds. A statute of frauds is provided which provides guidance on the frauds that can be prosecuted. If the contract document lacks names such as that of the client and address as well as a clear description of the

Impacts of Spread of Communication in Science and Technology Essay

Impacts of Spread of Communication in Science and Technology - Essay Example There is no other area where advances in communication have had significant changes like in the area of development and use of new science and technology. Impacts of spread of communication technology on science and technology First and foremost communication has been advanced by the use of internet in the 21st century and has significantly increased the amount of information that has been transferred and exchanged throughout the world. Thus the first impact which touches on science and technology greatly is increase on the volume of information being exchanged globally. The internet communication today plays an interactive role which is by far the most important impact. This is particularly in the field of science considering that production of scientific knowledge is basically a social process which involves sharing information, information collaboration and the mobilization of outputs. The old hierarchy which was based essentially on email made it possible for an instant collabora tion and creation of a group. This removed some of the barriers towards cooperation that had existed before and also brought some limitations to science and technology (Hattie, 2009, pp.132-134). ... The birth of science 2.0 through collaboration by scientist and the mass dispersal of scientific information gathering, the wisdom of the crowds have enabled a large pool of people to examine the same problem. This process has the ability of diminishing the distinction existing between informal and formal processes of creating knowledge. Communication is a critical factor that has a great impact on future development and the use of science and technology. The change in the face of global communication, in broad terms has affected science and technology in various ways. Enhanced research on science and technology Traditional forms of scientific communication emphasized production of knowledge by individuals with feedback from colleagues only and then subsequent knowledge exchange. This in simpler terms means interaction was limited to certain stages of the research project or was temporarily limited to proximate researchers. The output from the diversified knowledge is thus improved. More technological and scientific inventions and innovations are realised as a result of diversified knowledge. Researchers in the modern world of advanced communication are able to exchange knowledge and information outside the circles of colleagues. This has in effect enabled the researchers to gather a variety of information and leading to diversified knowledge. This has generally improved the outcomes in the various fields in science and technology. Revolutionizing of peer –peer and peer- lay information exchange The advance made in modern communication is changing the peer-peer and peer-lay exchange of information. It was a physical adventure to root out scientific information Some 20 years ago. One would have to cycle through libraries, chase up references

Article Review #1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Article Review #1 - Essay Example The independent variables were interpersonal-based service encounter and technology-based service encounter, while the dependent variables were brand loyalty and online purchase. The author applied The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model in predicting the behavioral intention of online purchases. The literature review is considered exhaustive, since it provided studies that explore the components, which impact consumer viewpoint perceptions of quality encounters, such as friendliness and display of proper emotions. It also mentioned studies that determined the relationship between service encounter satisfaction and repeat purchase intentions. From here, the author hypothesized that a positive customer encounter can motivate customers to use a hotel’s online reservation option. After that, the author connected studies that link satisfaction and brand loyalty and developed the second hypothesis from there. For two more hypotheses, the author identified the relationship between technology-based and interpersonal-relationship based encounters and brand loyalty. Finally, the author connected studies that built the relationship between brand loyalty and the intention to purchase services online. The research design followed the quantitative approach, with 2000 questionnaires distributed in 270 hotels. The response rate was 26.9% or 538, which is quite low. After eliminating incomplete replies, only 505 results were chosen. The hotels included international and national franchise hotels, as well as independent ones. The author improved the validity of this instrument through pre-testing and gathering insight from experts. Twenty tourists were used to pre-test the survey instrument. Factor analysis is applied, which is considered appropriate for the research, since it studied underlying data patterns. The findings adequately discussed if

Markting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Markting - Essay Example It is also a place where they can easily go to during lunch breaks for quick make-overs such as manicures or pedicures. Clients from the offices do not need to commute to go to the salon since it is just walking distance from their offices. Competition is not very stiff because most salons are located in the malls. For the hair, the services offered at the salon include hair cut, shampoo, blow dry, hair relax, hair rebonding, color, perm, wave, hair extension, hot oil and other specialized hair treatments. Grooming services include hair waxing and threading. For the nails, the services offered are manicure and pedicure. Make-up services are also offered. For the body, there is a choice of massage services which include a chair massage, foot massage/spa and a full-body massage. The salon will be marketed as a â€Å"one-stop shop† meaning it offers all the services that a woman is looking for in a salon. There is no need for her to go to one salon to have her hair done and go to another to have a foot spa. The unique selling point of the salon is the convenience it offers to its clients. It is not a high-end salon since the target market are office workers. Prices for the services will be somewhere in the middle-ground to be affordable to its market. To attract customers, coffee, tea or fresh juices will be offered to them while at the salon. Aside from magazines, there will be LCD televisions to entertain them while being serviced at the salon. In this way, even if they have to wait and stay in the salon for hours, the clients will not be bored. Advertising for the salon will be limited to flyers which will be distributed to offices nearby or to passersby. Membership cards will be given to customers wherein they are able to accumulate points for every service done on them. After reaching a certain number of points, they can avail of free services or beauty products or apply the points for discounts. Another marketing strategy that will

Paper for management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Paper for management - Essay Example Training junior managers to increase their involvement with junior employees will reduce unwanted behavior among employees. Managers will be on the importance of efficient communication between themselves and employees. Junior managers will also be with the knowledge about mechanisms to detect and solve problems efficiently (Ciavarella, 2003). Getting to the root of the problem is one of the primary concerns, in this case. Training managers on how to accurately detect a problem among employees will be fundamental in solving this problem. Early identification of a problem that workers are facing might protect the problem from escalating into a verbal or an emotional confrontation. Managers will be trained to inform employees clearly on what is of them. A comprehensive job description to new employees will help them know what the manager expects from them. After informing employees on what is of them, performance standards will be implemented to evaluate employee performance. Contrasting performance measures against employee performance will indicate which and where employees are facing problems. Managers will be trained to engage employees properly when coming up with performance standards. Highly engaging employees mainly contributes to reducing conflicts between managers and junior staff (Ciavarella, 2003). Managers will also be on how to maintain effective communication between themselves and their supervisees. Mostly, conflict arises when there is no proper channel of communication between employees and management. Managers will be trained to be tolerant of the diversity of employees from different backgrounds. Employees might be in conflict because of their personal and cultural differences. Training managers on how to handle diversity and be open to individual differences will significantly reduce conflict between employees. Managers

State of confusion paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

State of confusion - Research Paper Example She intends to file suit against Confusion in order to overturn the statute. The Court with Relevant Jurisdiction Since the case involves the State of Confusion and Tanya, a trucker from the state of Denial, it is a matter that encompasses interstate relations and thus cannot be entertained either in a state court of Confusion or in a Denial court. The most relevant court to preside over this case is the federal district court of the judicial district within which lie the two states. This is because federal district courts in the United States have jurisdiction over civil petitions and can issue injunctions on the application of statutes whose constitutionality is in question. Additionally, federal district courts are trial courts with authority on matters of law and questions of fact presented by residents of the judicial district. The Main Issues The case in question seeks the determination of the court as regards the constitutionality of a statutory law enacted by the state of con fusion requiring trucks plying its highways to install B-Type truck hitch or bypass the state rather than going through it. Of specific interest for the court is the need to find whether the statute contravenes Article IV of the US Constitution, which entitles all US citizens to equal privileges and immunities of citizens across the USA states. Secondly, the court will establish whether the requirements of this statute is discriminatory against out- of- state citizens and further infringes the Fourteenth Amendment right of all citizens to enjoy the immunities and privileges enjoyed by citizens of the several states. The third significant issue to determine in this is the extent to which the provisions of this clause burden interstate commerce, which violates the provisions of Commerce Clause (Article 1, Se 8, and Clause 3 of the US Constitution). In this regard, the court will find if the State of Confusion abrogated Congressional powers by making a law that regulates commerce on th e nation’s highways to the extent that it limits interstate commerce. Relevant law In deciding the constitutionality of the statute beforehand, the court will apply various sections of the US Constitution. Most notably, Constitutional provisions relating to regulation of interstate commerce, interstate movement of American citizens and the freedom of movement as envisioned in the Bill of rights will be applicable. The rules outlined in the Commerce Clause and the law covering the privileges and immunities guaranteed to all American citizens under Article IV of the US Constitution will apply (Guminski, 2009). Analysis of the case In the issue of Tanya truckers v. State of Confusion, the court should uphold the state of Confusion’s right to pass any legislation relating to the safety of those using its highways. However, such legislations must not be discriminatory on out of state citizens, which entail considering that the interest of out of state truckers who frequentl y use its highways. Since only one manufacturer in Confusion makes the specific B-type hitch, it is reasonably arguable that out of state truckers have limited access to the hitch and may find it very burdening to install the hitch on their trucks. This makes the statute discriminatory on out of state truckers who may not have installed the hitch for various credible reasons. In addition, the statute requires that all

Small and Medium Enterprises Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Small and Medium Enterprises - Essay Example The economic downturn brought about financial difficulties in SMEs and at the same time, lenders could not guarantee access to additional funds. Some of the SMEs were forced to shut due to financial difficulties and bankruptcy. The level of investments in SMEs also declined due to lack of funds for investments (Stokes and Wilson, 2010). One of the factors that limited the ability of SMEs to access credit during the recession was the tight credit controls. The government efforts to control the level of money supply lead to high interest rates. Banks had to raise their lending rates and tighten their credit policies to comply with government regulations. Consequently, the SMEs that could not meet these new credit terms could not access funds from banks to finance their operations. SMEs were more vulnerable to the negative effects of the recession of business operations compared to large firms. This is because SMEs lack resource and market manpower to withstand sudden environmental chan ges. The changes in the global economic environment brought about by the 2008 recession had severe effects on SMEs especially on the young and new business (Stokes and Wilson, 2010). The 2008 recession forced organisations to lay off many employees to survive. The level of production reduced and layoffs were used as a way of reducing the cost of production. SMEs were not spared from this move and they too had to lay off a significant number of their employees. This means that they would later incur additional labour costs of recruiting and training new employees after the economic recovery. The performance of SMEs in terms of output production and revenues was severely affected during the recession. The effects on performance were more severe in high risk SMEs relative to low risk SMEs. High risk organisations tend to have high debt to assets ratios. These organisations were forced to take drastic measures of laying off their employees and reducing the dividends paid to shareholders (Stokes and Wilson, 2010; Richard 2011). The profitability of SMEs reduced during the recession and the level of competition increased as well. The demand for products was low and thus, firms intensified their marketing activities to attract customers. However, the effectiveness of the marketing strategies was limited by the reducing purchasing power of the consumers during the recession. The SMEs across Europe faced excessive regulations administration, lack of skilled human resources and high costs of productions (Richard 2011). Question 2: Reasons why small firms dominate some market structures There are many theories that explain why small firms dominate certain market structure. The technical efficiency theory argues that the existence of small firms in a certain market will depend on economies of scale. Industries with large economies of scale compared to the market size tend to have many small firms and a few large firms that control the market. However, the number of small firms in such markets may increase if the concentration ratios and the economies of decline. The size of a market or its geographical distance has an effect on its composition. A large geographical distance will results in high transportation costs for large firms. Such a market will also have diseconomies of scale. Consequently, there will be more small firms than large firms in the market.  

Compare and Contrast the Philisophical Contributions of Nietzsche and Mill Essay Example for Free

Compare and Contrast the Philisophical Contributions of Nietzsche and Mill Essay Compare and contrast the philosophical contributions Nietzsche and Mill make to our understanding of political and social tyranny. Both philosophers, Nietzsche and Mill make contrasting and similar contributions to our understanding of the two terms. I intend explore how each philosopher does this and the differences and similarities between their two philosophies. Before comparing and contrasting the contributions of both Nietzsche and Mill to our understanding of political and social tyranny, it is important to define exactly what these terms mean, and to distinguish between the two. Political tyranny on the one hand is the imposition of positive liberty by a tyrant to an individual or a collective group of individuals. That is, a situation where a certain way of life is dictated to citizens through the presence of obstacles, barriers or constraints. If we lived in a politically tyrannical society, we would be living under the control of a dictator, ruled by a single governing body. Furthermore, the pressure for an individual to conform to these rules can be seen as a result of ones fear of public disapproval a recognised form of social tyranny. Philosopher John Stewart Mill, rigorously educated by his philosopher father James Mill, began making contributions to politics and philosophy from the early 1830s, when he wrote profusely on such political and philosophical matters. He was greatly influenced by the works of Jeremy Bentham and his interested in Utilitarianism. Mills book, On Liberty published in 1859 and written with his wife, saw Mill move away from the Utilitarian notion that individual liberty was necessary for economic and government efficiency and advanced the classical defence of individual freedom as a value in itself. It advocated moral and economic freedom of individuals from the state. His basic argument is simple: liberty from political and social tyranny is good because it allows for new and improved ideas to evolve and good because liberty forever puts old ideas to the test. His ideas were and still are enormously influential and the ideas presented remain the basis of much political thought. In On Liberty Mill refers to tyrannical societies of the past where liberty meant protection from the tyranny of political rulers. They consisted of a governing One or a governing tribe, who derived their authority from inheritance or conquest. (NZ) To prevent the weaker members of society from being preyed upon by innumerable vultures it was thought that there should be an animal of prey stronger than the rest. The aim being to set limits to the power of the tyrant. With this came a time where, as human affairs progressed, what was wanted was that rulers should be identified with the people, and that their interests should be the interests of the whole nation. This, Mill refers to as the tyranny of the majority which was held in dread (and commonly still is.) At this point, Mill is suggesting that majority rule itself could become a tyranny and that the suppression of minorities by the majority should be taken as a serious threat to a fair and just society. Mill claims that society as a whole can issue wrong mandates and practice a tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression. He argues therefore that protection against political tyranny is not enough: there also needs to be protection from social tyranny or the tyranny of prevailing opinion the latter being harder to achieve protection from. Mill saw that this kind of political tyranny could prevent the development of individualistic behavior. Such tyrannies could work in two ways: through the adoption of laws which operate against idiosyncratic, non conforming or dissenting individuals. Or, through the power or pressure of public opinion, (which is notoriously prone to error, superstition or tradition.) Hence Mill argued that public opinion should not be a law that everyone should conform to, and that the individual should have protection of the law against the prevailing sentiments of society. Essentially, we each need freedom to develop our individuality. So for Mill, the central problem is therefore to establish the legitimate extent to which the state can interfere in the affairs of individuals whilst maintaining acceptable levels of individuality. Mills answer is clear and is demonstrated through his Harm Principle which states that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant. -So Mill is referring to not just any harm, but specifically physical harm. If a person is harmed then his or her sovereignty over self no longer exists because sovereignty is after all the foundational position of power; this is Mills justification of the harm principle. Children and those who cannot take care of themselves are allowed to be interfered with beyond the harm principle as they may well harm themselves unintentionally; such children and those who cannot take care of themselves do not, and cannot, have sovereignty over self. Applying Mills Harm Principle strictly to current law would therefore remove paternalistic laws. For example there would be no reason to prohibit the laws prohibiting suicide, or drug taking or the wearing of seatbelts or crash helmets. From this perspective, laws that attempt to control such self regarding actions are wrong. They stunt the possibilities for individual development; the state should not be like an over protective parent, as for Mill, this does nothing but prevent the development of fully mature adults. Mills argument primarily questions what is the rightful limit to the sovereignty of the individual over himself? And how much of human life should be assigned to individuality, and how much to society? Mill says, to individuality should belong the part of life in which the individual is interested: to society, the part which chiefly interests society. Essentially, what are the limits of the law and what are the abilities of the individual? Evidently for Mill, the idea that the state should be involved in self regarding actions is entirely wrong. The individual must be allowed maximum freedom of choice in matters that are to do with personal choice His assertion reflects his own strong commitment to the idea of individual liberty and the belief that free individuals develop into more fully formed human beings. His arguments essentially reflect a strong belief in human reasoning and the ability for all of us to develop into mature autonomous individuals. Mills approach is therefore libertarian in that he saw the confining controlling state as a danger: whereas a society populated with free thinking individuals is a mature and successful society. Specifically referring to social tyranny, Mill states that though society is not founded on a contract, everyone who receives the protection of society owes a return for the benefit meaning, if you conform to society, or public opinion, you will receive protection, i.e. you will not be condemned by society. Mill furthermore claims that it would be a great misunderstanding to suppose that this doctrine is one of selfish indifference about the well being of others. There is indeed a need for an increase in the exertion of promoting the good of others, but Mill feels this can be done without physically or mentally punishing those who behave in a way that people dont agree with. Benevolence can find other instrument than whips and scourges, either of the literal or metaphorical sort So, if a person shows rashness, obstinacy or self conceit or pursues animal pleasures at the expense of those of feeling and intellect, it is expected that they will be lowered in the opinion of others. But, Mill makes it clear that we are not bound to seek the society of such an individual. We have a right to avoid it, and a right to caution others against the individual. If he displeases us, we my express our distaste: but we shall not feel called upon to make his life uncomfortable So if an individual has made a bad choice, we shouldnt condemn them further. If he has spoiled his life by mismanagement, we shall not for that reason desire to spoil it further At this point, Mill makes a clear distinction between the part of a persons life which concerns only himself and that which concerns others. He questions how the conduct of a member of society can be a matter of indifference to the rest of society, no person is entirely isolated. If he damages his property, he does harm to those who derived support from it, or if he deteriorates his bodily faculties, he becomes a burden on others. So even if his actions do no direct harm to others, he is never the less detrimental by example. As a liberalist, Mill stresses the importance of the individual and freedom. In a liberal sense, freedom means individual freedom. You are at liberty to do as you wish, there are no constraints upon how you choose to live your life, you are able, unhindered by tradition or inherited position to achieve your full potential. This idea opposes the characteristic of political tyranny i.e. the imposition of positive freedom; restriction and barriers. As Isaiah Berlin explained, negative and positive liberty are not merely two distinct kinds of liberty; they can be seen as rival, incompatible interpretations of a single political ideal. There are different ways to define liberty within a society. Isaiah Berlin talks about the two different types. Berlin agrees with the idea of negative liberty and thinks the purpose of government is not to show any visions of life; rather, it is to give them freedom to find out for themselves what the good life is. Berlin supposes that there should be a small government that will protect everyones individual rights. In a society where negative liberty is prevalent problems begin to arise when you begin to worry about government and not your private life. Negative liberty also allows everyone to have a sphere of rights. You are also able to become what you want and you have more self-control, because there is no pressure to conform to the norm of the community in order to keep the society running smoothly. Rousseau, an advocate for positive liberty thinks that self-mastery is necessary for us as individuals and says that we should want to be the masters of our own life. Positive liberty is, Wishing to be a subject, not an object; to be moved by reasons, by conscious purposes, which are my own, not by causes which affect me, as it were, from outside. By participating in your government and thinking for yourself you can achieve self mastery. By having political self-mastery you are free to form a society which forms your values, which leads to democracy. Mill, as a liberalist, believes there ought to be a minimum area of personal freedom which on no account can be violated. Mill says, If this boundary is overstepped, the individual will find himself in an area too narrow for even that minimum development of his natural faculties which alone makes it possible to pursue, and even conceive, the various ends which men hold good or right or sacred. Mill says there must a certain amount of personal freedom so that you grow as an individual, so therefore, there needs to be a distinction between private life and public authority. Freedom for the pike is death for the minnows; the liberty of some must depend on the restraint of others. In this type of society some people are held back for the betterment of others. The idea that for every person on top there must be someone below them must be accepted. The other philosopher in question, Frederic Nietzsche, German philosopher of the late 19th century challenged the foundations of traditional morality and Christianity. He believed in life, creativity, health, and the realities of the world we live in, rather than those situated in a world beyond. Like Mill, Nietzsche wanted to replace old values with new ones. He wanted to move towards a new type of human being. The Uberman In Nietzsches writing, Beyond Good and Evil he speaks of the new philosophers individuals of socio intellectual status who must pave the way forward for a new world. Who must rise above the confinements of political and social tyranny. Essentially, through asserting their will to power. Nietzsche refers to these individuals as the aristocrats, the elites. These noble men will assert their will to power. An ability that will have been passed down from generations. The new philosophers or noble breed will possess the master morality the morality of the aristocratic, that which makes values for others and sees itself as noble. At this point, Nietzsche introduces the notion of superiority the idea that these free spirits or new philosophers will assume a place of superiority in the social and intellectual hierarchy over those who are confined by political and social tyranny. In several aphorisms, he emphasizes a higher type of man, one who believes and demands an order of rank and disdains democracy and equality. Those inferior individuals, he refers to as the herd. The herd succumb to social and political tyranny, and so are slaves to it and they can not change. It is not in their genes. It is ok for the herd to be confined by political and social tyranny, but not for the elites. The elites must be the dominant force, not controlled by a force. Nietzsches fundamental principle is the will to power. Nietzsche refers to it as an essence of life. For Nietzsche, the underlying driving force of change is will. All drives come from a will to power, which is; the drive for freedom and domination over other things. We see it in our daily lives; in every argument there is a striving force for mastery and victory; even in the hierarchical nature of organisations e.g. manager vs. worker, teacher vs. pupil, politicians, preachers and even in the sex act itself. But, for Nietzsche, political and social tyranny seeks to tame this primeval drive and to suppress it. It is the weak and the herd who let their desires and will be suppressed. It is the role and duty of the new philosopher to cultivate it. Nietzsche strongly attacks religion. Especially Christianity. For Nietzsche, religion is a modern manifestation of political and social tyranny. Religion seeks to suppress the will to power. He refers to religion as an ongoing suicide of reason and has similarities with Freud in that he thinks religion is a neurosis or mental illness. Wherever the religious neurosis has appeared on earth we find it tied to three dangerous dietary prescriptions: solitude, fasting and sexual abstinence. So for Nietzsche, being a Christian, means denying ones desires, it means self sacrifice for the sake of God (whom he believes is dead) and showing pity and charity for others allegedly leads to the elevation of the weak-minded. Nietzsche believes we shouldnt show such charitable acts, or make unnatural sacrifices. Christians are the herd, because they follow such beliefs and live their lives by them. The herd are not in control of their lives, for they live by a set of principles that are not their own. Christianity as a form of tyranny takes over the individual. We self mutilate when we feel guilty. Nietzsche says we shouldnt feel guilty, as its better to do something and experience it, taking from it what we will, rather than be told not to do it at all. Political and social tyranny does not give an individual the chance to do this and places restrictions upon the individual. Like Mill, Nietzsche valued individualism above all else, but he saw that as a result of the acquiescence to social and political tyranny (e.g. religion) followed a herd mentality where everybody follows one another for fear of disapproval by public opinion, or in the case of religion, disapproval by God. The herd has given up their will to political and social tyranny. And so are weak to their superiors, as reflected in their values. But Nietzsche suggests that people want this. He refers to slaves wanting and accepting political and social tyranny, and relating to the modern manifestation of this through religion, it provides truth and certainty. The slave is led by a superior guide, and wants to be, because it is comforting. So hence, Nietzsche sees the Enlightenment or age of reason as enraging to the slave because it removes an Absolute Truth I.e. God. So forth, the slaves have to find their own truths. Both philosophers contribute from different stand points. Mill on one hand speaks from a liberalist perspective. Liberals see humans as essentially rational thinking creatures capable of making informed decisions and despises the kind of paternalistic controls of a political tyranny that characterised the previous feudal period. Where Nietzsche on the other hand comes from an elitist standpoint. So, for Nietzsche, the most human or natural of societies are those based on aristocratic principles. Thus, societies with clear and very wide social class divides are the most appropriate of humanity. Clearly defined class distinctions that Nietzsche would have liked are the times of the Ancient Greeks, Romans, Feudalism and even aspects of Nazism. Orders in which richness, excess, cruelty and sensuality were encouraged. This is where a major difference between Nietzsches philosophy and Mills becomes apparent. Mill criticises the political control of a tyrant on an individuals freedom, yet Nietzsche claims that these aristocrats are living for themselves The aristocrats have asserted their will to power over the people. He justifies this by saying that these societies are natural, because the will to power was exercised properly, by the powerful over the weak. Both have similar views on the topic of religion, arguing that no longer should one set of religious truths be imposed on a population. To move forward, to progress, is to explore the world through the exercise of human reason and critical enquiry. For Nietzsche, we must continually question everything, for there is no absolute truth. We have to find our own truth. We do this by being individual, and not following a herd. For Mill, we are rational thinkers, and bases his theory on this view that we will come to sensible conclusions. Hence, both philosophers advocate maximising negative liberty as a necessary condition for human flourishing. With the freedom to be individual without the barriers or constraints of tyranny, we as a society and as individuals progress and new ideas are formed. New values are made, replacing old ones. The Elitist vs. the Liberalist approach is where the two philosophers differ in attitudes. Taking into consideration a rejection of negative liberty, this could be used to pave the way for an alternative account.

The Impacts Of The Industrial Revolution In England History Essay

The Impacts Of The Industrial Revolution In England History Essay The Industrial Revolution is sometimes criticized for the negative impacts it brought to the society. However, it is a very interesting, and an undeniable fact that the revolution actually prevented the Malthusian Catastrophe, which could have affected England severely, through starvation, poverty, and diseases. This essay evaluates how, and in what ways England had been affected by the Industrial Revolution both negatively and positively. Most importantly, the research will focus on the ways in which the Industrial Revolution may have prevented the Malthusian Catastrophe in England. This essay, however, will not assess the impacts of the Industrial Revolution in any other countries, nor will it assess factors other than the Agricultural Revolution, efficiently produced goods, and the Enclosure Movement. The most important variables considered will be Englands societal and economic conditions before the revolution began, and how they changed after the revolution was progressed. Causes of the Industrial Revolution, the progress it made, and the negative social, or political impacts brought about in England will also be considered to evaluate the research question. Although the three factors played important roles in preventing the Malthusian Catastrophe, which could have brought disastrous impacts to the British society, they also bought negative impacts on the society, providing poor working conditions, and taking rights form the farmers This problems will further be evaluated in the actual essay. Contents Introduction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦4 Industrial Revolution Efficiently Produced Goods à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 6 Agricultural Revolution à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.10 The Enclosure Movement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. 14 Conclusion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦18 Works Cited à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 19 Industrial Revolution: The Impacts of the Industrial Revolution in England on the Malthusian Catastrophe Introduction In a state therefore of great equality and virtue, where pure and simple manners prevailed, the increase of the human species would evidently be much greater than any increase that has been hitherto known In 1798, Thomas Robert Malthus published an essay on the principle of population, describing the increasing number of human populations in the 18th century. In his essay, he came out with two postulates: one, food is necessary for human survival, and two, passion between the sexes will not go away. Along with the two postulates, Thomas Malthus undoubtedly declared that subsistence limits population level, since subsistence decreases while population increases (Thomas) and that this would affect the larger socio cultural system in terms of misery, vice, diseases and poverty. Malthus further augmented his idea through carrying capacity theory, noting that populations as a whole tend to grow exponentially or geometrically, whereas natural resources grow arithmetically if they grow at a ll. When a population reaches beyond the amount of resources available to its survival, it has reached its carrying capacity. When a population reaches its carrying capacity, a number of limiting factors such as disease or famine, can occur to bring population down and back to naturally acceptable limits.(Strachan) However, as a result of the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth century, his prediction towards Europe didnt take place. The first Industrial Revolution, which proceeded throughout the decades, began in Britain for a greater economic specialization, and to bring an economic shift through changes in industry. Before the introduction of the Industrial Revolution, there was a great social inequality among the populace in Britain (Hooker). Land was processed mostly by wealthy people, while lower class people struggled to survive, dying with malnourishment and diseases. Besides, there was a countless land of farms, while Britain possessed no real factories. However, follow ing the introduction of the Industrial Revolution, new factories were opened, more jobs were created, and wages rose (Kreis). Most importantly, it stopped the Malthusian Catastrophe, which could have brought devastating impacts on Britain. Three factors might have played significant roles in stopping the catastrophe, which are: Efficiently produced goods, Agricultural revolution, and the Enclosure Movement. Industrial Revolution: Efficiently Produced Goods The Industrial Revolution, which began in the eighteenth century in Britain, is well acknowledged for the mechanization of production systems. In earlier centuries, the focus was how to produce more used in the modern has changed everything (Kreis). Before the introduction of the Industrial Revolution, Britain was a country where men worked from dawn to dark and the laborer lived not in the sun, but in the poverty. In factories, production was merely dependent on laborers; hence it took a large amount of money and time, without productions being made promptly. In addition, many people worked at home in rural areas while a few worked in shops and in towns (Margaret). On the other hand, the industrial bourgeoisie was eager for higher profits, lower costs, and accelerated production, and they sought alternatives to improve the production of goods. In account of these reasons, machines and new inventions were considered outstanding for everyday use. The Industrial Revolution began with n ew machines. Within the relatively narrow confines of production technology in a number of industries, more numerous, and more radical inventions, including the telephone and assembly line, occurred during the Industrial Revolution than ever before in so short a period, and the Industrial Revolution eventually took manufacturing out of the home and workshop (Margaret). The machines and new inventions that ameliorated the efficiency in producing goods were wide ranging, from a shuttle to an engine. Along with these machines, many factories were able to accelerate production, with lower costs. For instance in 1785, Edmond Cartwright, an English inventor, invented what he called a power loom, after he was inspired by what he saw in a factory, owned by Richard Arkwright (Kreis). The machine, although at first stage, performed poorly with mechanical breakdowns, helped factories improve the speed and quality of weaving after being modified several times. Another example that had presented a great efficiency during the Industrial Revolution in Britain was the Steam Engine, which the first reliable one was developed by James Watt (Patricia). Steam engines were the power being locomotives and ships, which provided a faster source of transportation to bring raw materials to factories and to bring finished products to market. Both these machines were used var iedly in different factories and mines in Britain, as they helped to accelerate production, while having to spend less money and time. It was clear that the new inventions and machines during the Industrial Revolution created an enormous increase in the production of many kinds of goods. The underground movement of coal was speeded up by the utilization of ponies and carts on rail, and the production of coal increased steadily, from two and a half million to more than fifteen million tons by 1829 (Kreis). The flying shuttle, which was invented in 1738, rendered the old process of carrying the weft through the threads of the warp obsolete and enabled the weaver to double output (Patricia). The textile industry marked a great change after the introduction of new inventions, due to transformed methods of making textiles after the introduction of new inventions. Starting from 1831, the British industrial production was doubled, and in 1852, the industrial production doubled again, marking up to 3.3 per capita (Mokyr). The evidence is that the discovery of basic principles of machine design, their application to large or small-scale industrial production and the creation of efficient managerial techniques were all independent of the creation of the factory system by nineteenth-century capitalist. The application of machine design to such industries as spinning and weaving in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries often resulted in inventions suited to the circumstances of petty producers: The new machines required little capita and a family sized labor force, and hence were well suited to the perpetuation of Britain industry (Sabel, 1982, p. 39) At any rate, the efficiently produced goods played a principal role in stopping the Malthusian Catastrophe. It is to be noted that the Malthusian Catastrophe was said to be a return to subsistence level conditions as a result of economic being eventually outstripped by growth in population. The industrial revolution was the driving force behind social change in Britain, and changed nearly all aspects of life through new inventions and spawned a new economy (Clark). As a result of many new inventions such as the steam engine, locomotive and powered looms, production and transportation of goods radically changed. Furthermore, with new mechanized machinery, factories could be built and the factories used to mass produce goods at a rate that human labor could never achieve. Machinery replaced some human crafts; coal replaced humans and animals as the source of power to run machines; and the centralized factory system replaced the distributed, home-centered system of production (Rutherfor d Ahlgren, 1990, p. 151). Machinery and inventions invented toward the manufacturing companies clearly replaced the distributed, home centered system of production, and they eventually improved the production as well as economy in Britain. The population in Britain increased, which meant the resources had to be divided among a greater number of people, keeping the standards of living at subsistence levels (Jegede). The rapidly growing population and sustainability of economy worried Thomas Malthus, resulting in him introducing the theory of the Malthusian Catastrophe. However, following the newly invented mechanism, and efficiently produced goods, the Malthusian Catastrophe could have been stopped. The machines during the industrial Revolution did more during the 1800s to raise peoples standard of living than all the actions of legislatures and trade unions. Despite of its economic improvement, and the great increase in production of goods, therere also some negative interpretations toward the new machines invented during the same period of time. Some historians have stressed the negative parts of the machines, as they pointed to the overcrowded and unsanitary housing and the terrible working conditions such as low wage, created by rapid industrialization in the cities (Patricia). Child labor and precarious factory machines were also pointed out. In Britain, nearly half of the work force in the textile industry in 1833 was under the age of 16. In many cases, the employment of children was quite extensive and the conditions, hours and treatment appalling by twentieth century standards (Tuttle). Many interpretations are taken toward the acts of the industrial revolution. While some historians disparage the industrial revolution due to the negative impacts it brought to the society, some historians see it justifiable due to the fact that Britain had achieved a great progress in industry throughout the Industrial Revolution. Machinery that was invented for convenience brings about the transform in the entire humane history. Britain, which once was a rural and agricultural society, changed to an urban and industrial society throughout mechanism. The Industrial Revolution brought many material benefits that still remain established in the modern world. Britain became the central power in world trade after the revolution, as one suggested the next colony of Britain would be the universe. And these facts, allowed Britain stop the Malthusian Catastrophe. Industrial Revolution: Agricultural Revolution The Industrial Revolution, which began in the eighteenth century in Britain, also led to the Agricultural Revolution, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. The Great Britain was based on agriculture, and rural lives. Despite the great gains in industry throughout mechanism, agriculture remained the nations basic occupation, and therefore, enclosure movement, mechanization, four-field crop rotation and selective breeding were used to improve the agriculture (Gay). Agricultural Revolution is another major factor why the Industrial Revolution could bring to an end of the Malthusian Catastrophe. In Britain, before the Industrial Revolution was introduced, food was produced locally, and agriculture could provide for but a few large commercial towns. Somewhere around seventy five percent of the British population made their money farming, but in the winter, they couldnt farm, while in a mean time, farmers had to plow and plant by their own hands. Through out the 18th century, landowners became increasingly interested in finding new ways of farming, as ways of increasing the food supply had to be found due to the increasing population (Gay). Therefore numerous methods for farming were introduced during the Industrial Revolution, which eventually led to the Agricultural Revolution. With the start of the Agricultural Revolution, agriculture and farming families changed, and there occurred massive production in agriculture, including crops and grains. The machines and new techniques that ameliorated the efficiency in farming in agriculture were wide ranging, from breeding to machine. Along with these techniques and machines, many farmers were able to accelerate agricultural production, without having to spend a long time. For instance in 1730, Joseph Foljambe came out with an invention, called the Rotherham plough, the first iron plough to have any commercial success (Kennedy). The machine, which was made of iron and mould board and share, was covered with an iron plate that made it lighter to pull and more controllable than the previous ploughs (Alan). The machine, during the Industrial Revolution, was usually used to turn the soil more effectively with less draft, wear, or strain on the ploughing team, which helped farmers with farming (Kennedy). Another example that provided the efficiency in farming in agriculture was a technique called the three field crop rotation, which Charles Townshend brought to Great Britain after learn ing it from Flanders (Billet). During the middle Ages, the Great Britain had employed a three year crop rotation, in which different crops are placed in each of two fields. Over the following two centuries, the regular planting of legume in the fields, which were uncultivated gradually increased the fertility, and the planting of legumes helped the farming to increase plant growth in the empty field due to their ability to fix nitrogen in the soil (Harskamp) This technique was used as farmers could grow more livestock because there was more food of higher quality. In addition the manure was used as an excellent fertilizer, as it could produce productive crops. Both these techniques were brought during the Industrial Revolution, and helped the farmers grow more livestock that is in higher quality. At any rate, the Agricultural Revolution, followed by a wide-ranging of mechanics and techniques invented during the Industrial Revolution, played a principal role in stopping the Malthusian Catastrophe. Many historians note that the Malthusian Catastrophe referred a return to subsistence level conditions as a result of agricultural production being eventually outstripped by growth in population. Thomas Malthus argued that the unprecedented population growth will outpace the agricultural revolution, and this will result in deaths through starvation and hunger (Thomas). However, it did not happen. The industrial revolution was the driving force behind social change in Britain, especially the rural lives. New inventions and new technologies had changed the ways of farming, and helped the farmers grow more livestock. The agricultural productivity of Britain grew significantly in the period of the agricultural revolution, that it was estimated that the productivity of wheat was about nin eteen bushels per acre in 1720, and that it had grown to twenty one to twenty two bushels in the middle of the eighteenth century (Turner). Although there still was an increase in population, the introduction of the agricultural revolution, followed by the industrial revolution allowed the population growth to be sustained, and the Malthusian Catastrophe didnt occur. The machines and techniques during the Industrial Revolution did more during the 1800s to raise peoples standard of living in farm lands than all the actions of legislatures and trade unions. The machines and techniques used during the industrial revolution, although played a lot of necessary roles in increasing the agricultural production, have negative interpretations as well. Some historians argue that the agricultural revolution was harmful to some of the farmers as the enclosure movement kicked many traditional farmers off the community owned land they had used, putting them out of work (Snooks). Second, with fewer people needed to grow more food, other farm workers were put out of work. More importantly, the population of Britain rose relatively quickly that the population in 1750 reached the level of 7.7 million. Poorly managed farms and ranches were also problems that they contributed to pollution through pesticide abuse and emission violations (Snooks). There occurred soil e rosion through lack of proper stewardship and animal cruelty through ignorant or willful mistreatment of animals. Despite of the negative interpretations toward the machinery in factories, the fact that Britain had achieved a great progress in farming, and farming production throughout the Industrial Revolution is not deniable. Machinery and techniques that were invented or brought for convenience brought about the transform in the entire Britain agriculture. Britain, although was changed to an urban and industrial society throughout mechanism, its agriculture still remained the nations basic occupation, and Britain tried to improve the techniques under the basis of improvements in industrial machines. The Industrial Revolution brought many material benefits that still remain established in the modern world. Undergoing the industrial and agricultural revolution, Britain could be the central power both as a rural, and an urban country. This is important because the Malthusian Catastrophe concerned about the food production being outstripped by the increasing number of population. As the food prod uction increased following the newly introduced techniques and inventions, Britain could avoid such a catastrophe. Industrial Revolution: The Enclosure Movement Britain was based on agriculture, and rural lives. Food was produced locally, and agriculture could provide for but a few large commercial towns. (Industrial) In addition, Most of the British population made their money through farming. However, land owners became interested in the new way of farming, which would increase the productivity. Before the introduction of the Industrial Revolution, there occurred an Enclosure Movement in the 18th century, which revolutionized the landscape of rural Britain (More). As a result of the enclosure movement, instead of communal exploitation of land, property could be managed privately (More). The community in a typical English farmer society was no longer in charge of land, and there was no longer a loose and lax policy on the occupation of land (agricultural). It was after the Industrial Revolution, when the process of enclosure was most apparent. Numerous acts and bills were signed by the English parliament for separate and different parts of land, and the movement revolutionized economic activity by isolating and organizing different farms (Agricultural). Also, its ability of better rising of crops and animals made the enclosure movement become so popular that Trim hedges and compact fields have, for the most part, replaced the wide commons and the scattered, intermixed strips of the old husbandry once practiced over a large part of Britain (Gay). The Enclosure movement was not merely an alteration of agricultural technique, nor was it, on the other hand, a series of spasmodic, cataclysmal upheavals, overwhelming an unfortunate peasantry with each successive convulsion (Gay). The Enclosure Movement played countless important roles in stopping the Malthusian Catastrophe. One most important role was that it improved the agricultural production. In order for landlords to make the most efficient use of the land, they had to manage the field as they saw fit. This was, of course, impossible under the three field system (System of agricultural cultivation in Western Europe; included one-third in spring grains, one-third fallow) (Agricultural), which had dominated English agriculture from the 9th century. Since farmers, small and large, held their property in long strips, they had to follow the same rules of cultivation. The local parish or village determined what ought to be planted. In the end, the open field system of crop rotation was an obstacle to increased agricultural productivity. The solution was to enclose the land, and this meant enclosing entire villages. Landlords, by petition to Parliament, started enclosure, and in the 19th century, more than 900 acts of enclosure were passed (agricultural). The enclosure movement could prevent the Malthusian Catastrophe as it ultimately contributed to an increased agricultural surplus, necessary to feed a population that would double in the 19th century. Another important role it played was the mobility of the workers. The Enclosure Movement, although was indirect, and roundabout, also contributed in improving the British economy. The enclosure movement dramatically changed the English way of life, leading to the enormous economic upheavals that had a profound influence on the modern society. As a result of the enclosure movement, many peasants and working class people were forced to move to the cities, where they could get jobs. Consequently, large numbers of people left rural areas to move into the cities, where they became laborers in the factories during the Industrial Revolution (More). In the cities, they played as factory workers, being engaged in increasing the industrial production s. In fact, the Malthusian Catastrophe referred a return to subsistence level conditions as a result of agricultural production and economy being outstripped by growth in population (Thomas). Thomas Malthus argued that the unprecedented population growth will outpace the agricultural revolution, and this will result in deaths through starvation and hunger. However, it did not happen. The enclosure movement was the driving force behind social and economic changes in Britain, especially the rural lives. By revolutionizing the landscape, and also by appropriate public land for a private benefit, Britain could make a huge improvement in increasing both the agricultural and economic productivity. The agricultural productivity of Britain grew significantly in the period of the enclosure movement, and had also made Britain, a center of the world economy. Although there still was an increase in population, the introduction of the enclosure movement, followed by the industrial revolution allowed the population growth to be sustained, and the Malthusian Catastrophe didnt occur. Despite the fact that the enclosure movement played lots of important roles in increasing the agricultural production, and improving the British economy, therere also some negative interpretations toward the movement. Historians often go against the need of introducing the Enclosure Movement for two main reasons; one, it kicked many traditional farmers off from the community owned land they had used, putting them out of work in the cities (Snooks). Second, as the result of the population growth in cities, poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets, while homes shared toilet facilities, and open sewers (Tuttle). Furthermore, disease was spread through a contaminated water supply. Third, peasants, and lower class people, who lost their land to work on, moved to towns, where all families had to work (Tuttle). Therefore, even children had to work in factories under poor working conditions. Although there are some negative aspects toward the Enclosure Movement, the fact that Britain had achieved a great progress in agricultural productivity and economy could prevent Britain from the Malthusian Catastrophe. By revolutionizing the landscape, Britain enjoyed the increasing amount of agricultural production that could support the increasing number of population. Moreover, the facts that farmers and low class people moved to the towns made British economy increase. The Industrial Revolution brought many material benefits that still remain established in the modern world. Undergoing the industrial and agricultural revolution, Britain could be the central power both as a rural, and an urban country, which in fact, allowed Britain to prevent the Malthusian Catastrophe. Conclusion The Industrial Revolution was a great shift in the eighteenth century in Britain. When Thomas Malthus, a well known economist, came out with the theory, about the agriculture and economics being outstripped by increasing number of population, many people in Britain were worried about the growth rate of population. The introduction of the Malthusian Catastrophe meant the introduction of a tremendous disasters, which include diseases, misery, vice and poverty. The fierce was heightened when the capacity theory, which was concerned with the idea of resources becoming limited, reducing the populations rate of growth, was introduced, resulting in a large populace trying to find a way that could stop the catastrophe. However, the Industrial Revolution opened a new road, not only for Britain, but also for the world, with a concept of introducing new machines, techniques, and a movement to the agricultural based country. Although the Industrial Revolution is often harshly criticized for the negative outputs they brought, such as pollution, poor working conditions, and taking up of rights, it was the Industrial Revolution that could have prevented Britain from the Malthusian Catastrophe. Britain, by going through the Industrial Revolution, changed from a rural and agricultural society, to an urban and industrial society. As agricultural revolution was introduced, the efficiency in farming was ameliorated. Also, it became one of the most powerful countries in the world with its massive increase in agricultural productivity, and economy. Although some historians argue that the whole Industrial Revolution was not justifiable, the Industrial Revolution resulted in efficiently produced goods, agricultural revolution, and the enclosure movement, which eventually prevented Britain from the Malthusian Catastrophe.

Marxist Theories of Punishment

Marxist Theories of Punishment The application of punishment is determined by the class system. Critically discuss this with reference to Marxist theories of Punishment. This essay is going to critically discuss with reference to Marxists theories of punishment whether the application of punishment is determined by the class system. In order to do this we first need an understanding of what Marxist theory is based on, how Marx differentiates the class system and how punishment fits in to his theory. At the time of Karl Marx’s work, he had witnessed many revolutions across Western Europe. Marxism tried to get people to understand the society they lived in and whilst he did only a minuscule amount of work on actual crime and criminals, he did acknowledge that there was conflict within society (History Learning Site, 2010). He recognised there was a split in society between the wealthiest and the poor. One of Marx’s main focus’ in his theory was the economy and he believed those who had wealth were the powerful and those who were poorer were the powerless. By the start of the industrial era Marx believed society to be split between two economic classes. The poorer end of society known as the ‘proletariat’ which is also known to be the working-class, and the ruling-class he described as being a more dominant class, called the ‘bourgeoisie’; these were owners of wealth that did not need to work. The control and owning of private property by the wealthiest (which was the start of Capitalism) and the exploitation of labour done by the working class was his main idea in his theory on the conflict of classes. â€Å"Marx saw conflict in society as being due to a scarcity of resources and a historical inequality in the distribution of those resources, notably power.† (Williams and McShane, 2010; 134). Marxists criminologists suggest that class struggle affects crime in three different positions. Firstly, they suggest that law is a tool used by the ruling class to control the working class. They believe that is why there is no law enforcement for the ruling class (Michalowski and Bohlander, 1976 cited in Williams and McShane, 1988: 135), they said that behaviour that is not placed under any law but instead placed under just administrative and governing laws can only be to protect themselves. Marxist think law is an abuse to general human rights and they also question the power of the law and it purpose in its application, if the working class are policing the working class (Schwendinger and Schwendinger, 1970, 1972, 1977; Platt, 1974 cited in Williams and McShane, 2010). Secondly, Marxist’s see all crime in a capitalist society as a product of class struggle. It causes the working class the need to chase to get ahead which can manifest itself it to criminal behaviour. The di vide between these two classes and the conflict, creates competition. Someone will want something and when they feel there is no other way of achieving this, criminal activity can take place (Bohm, 1982 as cited in Williams and McShane, 2010). This can be seen in Emilie Durkheim’s Anomie theory. There are other theories that also recognise a division in society. Emilie Durkheim’s anomie theory also recognised the division in society and in his book termed it as the division in labour. He studied Europe after the industrial revolution and Durkheim saw from forced industrialisation and commercialisation, a large economic crisis could define factors of causing a state of anomie. He described this as a breakdown of social norms for the working class. He stated without clear rules to guide the working class, individuals find it hard to find a place in society. He concludes that this in turn causes dissatisfaction, frustration, conflict and deviance. Durkheim’s anomie theory looks at social norms in society being broken while Merton’s Strain theory (1938) looks more at deviance who also refers to bureaucratic behaviour as well as criminal behaviour in his theory. In Merton’s theory he saw certain goals emphasised through society and used financial succe ss as an example. He said not everyone has equal access to these financial achievements or success and that some people may look for illegitimate ways to gain this success. Because of this social inequality and division in society between the working class and ruling class, he believes that certain goals are just not available for certain groups within society such as the lower social class. Merton’s anomie theory is often referred to as strain theory as this lower or working class feel a strain to achieve illegitimately ways to gain this success and those groups with the least access to achieve these goals have higher crime and deviance rates according to Merton. In his study of US societies that these higher rates of crime were amongst the lower classes (Williams and McShane, 1988: 79-83). These theories of anomie and strain theory all take the same direction as Marxist theory in that they believe there to be a division in society between working class and the ruling class. With the ruling class holding the most power and the working class trying to achieve this. The power held by the dominant class has also been termed ‘cultural capital’ (Giddens, ). Marxism influences cultural capital. Pierre Bourdieu another sociologist influenced by Marx argues that it is the education system, to blame for the failure of the working class, not the working class culture. He referred to the cultural capital as those who were in possession of the dominant culture and thought this could be translated in to wealth and power through the education system. He claimed that cultural capital in class structure was not evenly proportionate and he could see this in the class structure through the disparities in education attainment achieved by those of different classes. Bourdieu claims that middle class students succeed better than those of the working class as they are the dominant culture. He states that education attainment is directly related to those who possess the most cultural capital (Giddens – Sociology). Gramsci was a Marxist thinker in the 20th century whose work evaluated culture and political leadership. He believed that the bourgeoisie uphold control, that they developed a hegemonic culture which he saw transmitted its own set of norms and values that just became common sense values and norms of everyone. People from classes outside the ruling class acknowledged their own good with the good of the ruling class. Marxism always expected a revolution in capitalist societies but by early 20th century no revolution had occurred in such advanced countries. Gramsci’s theory suggested that capitalism maintained control not just through political and economic coercion, but also through ideology as well. (Perry Anderson, 1976. (The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. New Left Review). SENTENCE TO WRAP IT UP Marxism saw the creation of two different groups that were created through the rise of capitalism; the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat) and he claimed that these two classes offered nothing but â€Å"new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of old ones†. They saw that the labour of the working class needed to be exploited in order for the ruling class to gain more capital. Marxism referred to this as oppression and believed that the ruling class exercised their power over the working class in order to control them. Rusche (1980) took the same approach in his theory of punishment and social structure. He states that when wages go up because of the lack of labour that this in turn causes the ruling class to apply their power to supply the need for cheap labour. Rusche saw that the exploitation of prison labour began to be the preferred method over previous methods such as corporal and capital punishment. He claims that â€Å"When a labour surplus occurs, wages go down causing a mass unemployment resulting in extremely high penalties, such as corporal and capital punishment executed in a torturous fashion. This is thought to be needed in order to keep crime down† (Rusche, 1980:). During the industrial era the ruling class turned prisons in to workhouses which were named the house of correction. These were set up in a bid to help supply their need for cheap labour. The house of correction’s main aim and focus was there to make those that didn’t want to work and was unwilling to work, to make them work. Rusche and Kircheimer (1939) claimed that by being forced to work within this institution that the prisoners would pick up skills in the hope that they could take with them to the labour market on release. During period where labour was in excess, and the attitude changed toward the poor, it became unprofitable to force people to work and prisons became warehouses for people that he also claimed cost money. He also claimed that the attitudes towards punishment need to change when the living conditions of the working class began to get worst. In order to see that people were being punished according the conditions of the prison had to be worse than those of the prisoners conditions on the out side of prison. As Jenner (2014) stated â€Å"the conditions need to be markedly more unpleasant than the conditions of life experienced by those of the lowest strata living free in society†. This of course, had economic advantages, less food was needed and no medical assistance offered, but it came to be seen that the living conditions of the working class, did not ‘vary’ much, from those of the prison. This caused the conditions to deteriorate even worst in an attempt to deter the working class not to end up inside the prison (Rusche and Kirchiemer, 1939). Evidence to support these theories that prison is a way of controlling the working class by the ruling class can be seen in the inequalities of the prison population. According to a report by NACRO (1997a; 1997b) England and Wales have one of the highest prison populations in Western Europe which in 1997 was as high as 61,000. They reckoned this figure could rise by the year 2005 to 82,000. A national survey done by the Home Office carried out on prison population in 1991 showed that it was made up by uneducated young men, many whom had an ethnic minority background. His study found some interested figures in evidence of the theories that have been presented in this essay. This study found that 40% of the prison population to be under 25 but over 18 compared to 16% of the general population; this shows there is a huge over representation of young men between 18-25 years old, imprisoned. It found that 41% of prisoners either posed no skills or had very little, compared to 18% of the g eneral population; again a large over representation of unskilled labour force. This study also found that 15% of prisoners were from Black or Asian ethnic minorities yet these minorities only make up 5% of the general population. 40% of prisoners under the age of 25 had left school before they were supposed to, compared with only 11% of the general population. 38% of prisoners under 21 had experienced being in care whilst only 2% of the general population experience this and 13% said they did not have a place to live before they entered the prison system (Walmsley et al., 1992 cited in NACRO, 1997b). From these figures and our knowledge of Marxism with regards to class struggle and the segregation of the lower class, how the ruling class exert their power over the working class and how they use this power to control, we can see that the prison has been used in the same way. That it is a mere control of the bourgeoisie bid to control the working class. This can also be seen in the a pplication of law and how the bourgeoisie wrong doings do not fall under any law but as mentioned earlier fall under administrative and governing laws in order to protect their own. This could also be argued in the case of why white collar crime does not get much attention paid to it over criminal law. REFERENCES Anderson, P. (1976) The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. New Left Review. Bohm, R.M. (1982) Radical Criminology: An explanation. Criminology, 19, 565-589. Giddens – Sociology). History Learning Site (2010) Marxism and Crime [online] available at. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/marxism_crime.htm accessed on. (20th Feb 2014). Jenner, A. (2014) Assessment Workshop [SC6001 Justice, Punishment and Social Control]. 27th February, 2014. Maguire, M., Morgan, R. Reiner, R. (2007) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (4th edt), University Press: Oxford. Merton, R. K. (1938) Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672-682. Michalowski, R. J. Bohlander, E. W. (1976) Repression and criminal justice in capitalist America, Sociological Inquiry, 46, 95-106. NACRO (1997a) Information Bulletin, An occasional briefing compiled by NACROS Youth Crime Section, Issue 7, NACRO: London. NACRO (1997b) Criminal Justice Digest. No. 91, February, NACRO: London. Platt, T. (1974) Prospects for a radical criminology in the United States. Crime and Social Justice, 1, 2-6. Rusche, G. (1980) Labour Market and Penal Sanctions: Thoughts on the Sociology of Criminal Justice. In T. Platt, Takahi, P. (Edts.), Punishment and Penal Discipline (pp 10-16). Berkeley, CA: Crime and Social Justice Associates. Rusche, G. Kirchiemer, O. (1939). Punishment and Social Structure. New York: Russell Russell. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1970) Defenders of order or guardians of human rights? Issues in Criminology, 5, 113-146. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1972) The continuing debate on the legalistic approach to the definition of crime. Issues in Criminology, 7, 71-81. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1977) Social class and the definition of crime. Crime and Social Justice, 7, 71-81. Walmsley, R., Howard, L and White, S. (1992) The National Prison Survey 1991 main findings. A Home Office Research and Planning Unit Report, HMSO: London. Williams, F. P. and McShane, M. D. (2010) Criminological Theory (5th edt), Pearson: London.

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To: Consumer Reports Online Web Site Customer Relations Department 101 Truman Avenue Yonkers, NY 10703 ere were no laws. Even though this was not illegal it would surely be punished by death if perceived, Winston therefore did all that he could do in secrete. Progressing on with his diary he hears a quite knock on his door, I can imagine him Jumping, and then looking up with a startled glance. He answers the door only to find that it is his neighbor Mrs. Parson, she was having some trouble with her pipes and thought that Winston being a member of the part would be able to help her. Winston however quickly finds himself uncomfortable in Mrs. Parson’s home. Not because of Mrs. Parson or even because of her telescreen, but rather her children who were much more dangerous than perhaps even the telescreen. They were members of a party led group called the Junior Spies, these â€Å"spies† are sent out by Big Brother to catch adults in committing thought crime. He has some fears that he has been caught, and duly writes these things in his journal. The next morning his dreams awake him before the alarm from the telescreen, it was time for his exercises and as he exercised he thought about history. Real history not the over baked and watered down crap that the Party fed everyone. He could remember nothing of Big Brother before 1960, but now it seem that records of his acted had materialized as far back as the thirty’s. As he is thinking he must have slacked off because he is scolded by a voice from the inside of his telescreen. Winston works in the records department of the Ministry of Truth, his job is to correct â€Å"flaws† in history that incriminate the party’s leader Big Brother. The extent of altering goes from the most extreme action of deleting events in the records; to the simple and quite mundane task of simply changing the name of someone mentioned. Winston is starting to get tired of lying for a living. He then retires for lunch and discuses the nature of Oceania’s new official language called â€Å"Newspeak†, it seems that the goal of this new language is to completely rule out all possibility of rebellion by eliminating words that pertain to independent thought and action.

Exploring Teacher Pay Incentives Essay examples -- education reform, t

This study analyzes four articles’ study findings as well as authors’ conclusion on the teachers’ incentive pay issue based on the studies presented by the authors. Those articles include Steele, Murname and Willnett (2009) that seek to analyze the effect of incentives on teachers’ retention. In the article, a natural experiment done in California between the year 2000 and 2003 involving an incentive of $20,000 that was called the Governor’s Teaching Fellowship (GTF) analyzes the incentives’ effect on talented teachers’ attraction and retention in low-performing schools. In addition, Fryer (2011) is the other article presenting an analysis of teacher’s incentives’ effect on students’ success in terms of attendance, academic performance or graduation. The article utilizes a school-based random trial involving more than 200 public schools in New York. Further, the analysis reviews an article by Figlio and Kenny (2006) which is a documentation of students’ performance’s relationship with teachers’ performance incentives. The study utilizes United States data combining the authors’ survey that was conducted in 2000 with National Education Longitudinal Survey on students and schools in regard to teachers’ pay incentives. Finally, Nael (2011) is an article on an analysis of education incentive schemes through a review of empirical studies that evaluates educators’ performance pay programs. Thus, the article will provide a suitable review on designs of student’s achievements measures and teachers’ performance metrics. Article 1: Relationship between teacher pay incentives and student’s performance Figlio & Kenny (2006) presents the first systematic documentation of the relationship that exists between students’ performance and the ... ...g jobs at the existing pay. In addition, incentives would retain the teachers as they would not be motivated to look for alternative jobs. (Barron & Lynch, 1987) Works cited Barron, J. & Lynch, G. Economics. London: Richard D. Irwin Inc, 1987. Print. Figlio, N. D. & Kenny, L. â€Å"Individual Teacher’s Incentive Programs and Student’s Performance†. NBER Working Paper 12627, October 2006. Print. Fryer, G.R. â€Å"Teachers Incentives and Students Achievement: Evidence from New York City’s Public Schools†. NBER Working Paper 16850, March 2011. Print. Neal, D. â€Å"The Design of Performance Pay In Education†. NBER Working Paper 16710, January 2011. Print. Steele, J., Murname, R. & Willnett, J. â€Å"Do Financial Incentives Help Low Performing Schools in Attracting and Keeping Talented Teachers? Evidence from California†. NBER Working paper 14780, March 2009. Print.